The Freeze-Thaw Cycle and Its Impact on Masonry

Engineering construction in the Eastern Tibetan Plateau plays a strategic role in the social and economic development in China. The Tibetan plateau is the most tectonically active, climate sensitive, and geomorphologically diverse region in the world, which is why engineering construction in the region poses many major scientific and engineering problems1,2,3. The coupling of temperature and stress fields triggered by freeze–thaw cycles leads to the deterioration of physical and mechanical properties of rock masses, which indirectly induce geohazards such as landslides and collapses4,5,6,7. For example, Chiarle et al. deduced that rock slope stability at high altitudes has become more sensitive to climate change in the last decade8.

Effect of freeze–thaw cycles on the uniaxial tensile strength of granite samples

For instance, it does not account for the expansion observed in ordinary concrete during freezing or the behavior of non-expansive liquids when they freeze (Rønning, 2001; Yu et al., 2017). This process subsequently contributes to additional ice volume expansion, ultimately leading to frost heaving at the base of the soil. The expansion of the frozen water (ice lens) within the soil will exert upward pressure from the penetration limit and induce deformation, which in turn lifts the in-situ frozen soil (Figure 4B) (Schreiber, 2014; Wang and Zhou, 2018). The process can continue and cause vulnerability to the infrastructures in the affected area. Also, the seasonal and alternating temperatures can cause freeze-thaw cycles in soil and rocks, disturbing engineered underground infrastructure and resulting in potential hazards. Frost heaving varies based on humidity and soil conditions, which can result in non-uniform deformation of railway and highway subgrade constructed on permafrost (Chen Y. et al., 2020). Geo-infrastructure projects built in freeze-thaw geomaterials are one of the most prevalent challenges in the world (Matsuoka, 2001). Mentioned that rocks can uptake water during slow freezing, and thus, for frost damage, high initial water content is unnecessary. Consequently, the implications of frost heaving on geotechnical practices in cold regions have been investigated by several researchers. Michaud and Dyke, (2008) discussed the mechanism of bedrock frost heave in permafrost regions, emphasizing the potential threat it poses to engineering design stability.

• Have you ever seen a heavy, solid rock that’s been seamlessly broken into thin plates by some invisible force?
• The results also indicate that the increase in strength was more significant in BB-amended CL soil than in non-amended soil with the curing period.
• Furthermore, the differences in failure pattern observed in uniaxial compression and uniaxial tensile tests can be attributed to the inherent anisotropy and structural complexities of the rock samples.
• At higher temperatures, water travels at a faster rate along with sulfate ions, which accelerates the chemical reaction between the sulfate and the hydration products of the cement (Ikumi and Segura, 2019; Chen et al., 2020; Zhu et al., 2023).
• Furthermore, freezing damage to tunnel foundations encompasses various aspects, including failures in the drainage system, snowmelt and ice formation on roadcut surfaces, foundation seepage, and icing issues (Li et al., 2022).

Mitigating Delayed Ettringite Formation in Concrete Buildings and Structures

The sample cell was outfitted with two 32-gauge thermocouples placed directly into the material at the bottom and center of the cell to monitor sample temperatures. The liquid protein sample was cooled at a controlled rate of 0.5 °C per minute to a target setpoint of − 60 °C. Upon the completion of freezing, the stage was then warmed at an average controlled rate of 0.5 °C per minute. Sample behavior was observed using a Microscope capable of magnification from 16 to 330 × coupled to a camera10.

Low temperature thermal analysis

Water, ice, and freeze-thaw processes have been crucial to shaping landscapes across the globe, from the chilly Arctic circle, to the snowy mountain tops in the distance, to the frost-covered yard behind your home. Well, we know that some soils are formed by the breakdown of rocks into smaller mineral components. This process is called weathering, and it can be caused by a multitude of agents including (but not limited to) trees and plants, lichen, microorganisms, flowing water, and…ice.

Mechanical Properties of Concrete with Blast Furnace Slag Fine Aggregates Subjected to Freeze-Thaw Cycles

This phenomenon can also affect the physical and mechanical properties of rocks. Taber, (1929) and Taber, (1930) mentioned that under atmospheric pressure, when a definite amount of water is cooled, it freezes at 0°C with an expansion in volume at about 10%. Also, in soils, Beskow, (1991) stated that an increase in load pressure leads to soil consolidation, resulting in the squeezing out of water. When the pressure decreases, the soil tends to expand and under these conditions, there is potential for the soil to suck the water required for the volume increase (Black and Hardenberg, 1991). Many types of soils and rock masses show frost-heaving behavior during the freeze-thaw cycles because of temperature variations when they contain water. The effect of frost heaving causes a lot of damage to geo-structures, such as pipelines (Oswell, 2011), subgrades (Wu et al., 2018), foundations, tunnels, etc.

The Freeze-Thaw Cycle and Its Impact on Masonry

Lajurkar et al. (2013) highlighted the damaging effects of alternate swelling and shrinkage on structures built on expansive soils. Phanikumar and Singla, (2016) discussed the problems posed by expansive soils and explored the efficiency of fiber reinforcement in reducing swelling and shrinkage. Muthukumar and Shukla (2019) explained that the swelling decreased slightly with an increase in fiber content, while shrinkage significantly decreased with the addition of fibers. The data in this study suggested that the mAb-1 in low salt, low phosphate buffered solutions and at high protein concentration was least susceptible to aggregation by F/T stress. High protein concentration provided an enhanced stabilizing effect with overall lower level of aggregation observed in comparison to levels seen at low protein concentrations. In this study, as the concentration of salt in phosphate buffered saline solutions was increased, the amount of protein aggregation increased.

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“Predictive modeling of freezing and thawing of frost-susceptible soils,” in Michigan state university. Freeze-thaw stability testing is essential for evaluating the physical stability and compatibility of pharmaceutical products with freezing and thawing conditions encountered during storage, handling, and distribution. By conducting these tests as part of stability studies, pharmaceutical companies can ensure the quality, safety, and efficacy of their products throughout their intended shelf life. We show that freeze-thaw cycles earlier in the year significantly inhibit plant sprouting and early growth. Specifically, they promote denitrification and thus reduce nitrogen levels, which in turn intensifies nitrogen limitation in the wetland soil. We find that plants tend to sprout later but faster after they are exposed to freeze-thaw cycles. Wetland flooding could alleviate these medium-term effects of freeze-thaw cycles.  ProGorki  suggest that wetland plants in mid-to-high latitudes have evolved sprouting and growth strategies to adapt to climatic conditions at the beginning of winter and spring. With the knowledge gained from the small scale models, further studies were conducted to accurately simulate the effect of freezing and thawing at the manufacturing scale.

Effect of phosphate and sodium chloride concentrations on freeze–thaw induced aggregation

Substantial efforts have been made to investigate the freeze-thaw’s ecological effects under climate change. Numerous studies have focused on the freeze-thaw’s immediate effects on soil biogeochemical cycles, with sampling occurring during or at the end of the freeze-thaw period, proving that freeze-thaw causes substantial carbon and nitrogen release5,6. Additionally, far less research has been undertaken to study the freeze-thaw’s carry-over effects than the immediate effects, despite evidence that the freeze-thaw’s carry-over effects changed carbon and nitrogen processes for months to years10,11. However, these investigations are far from sufficient for our knowledge of the freeze-thaw’s carry-over effects because they mostly proved the existence of carry-over effects but did not provide a clear exposition of the mechanism. In cold regions, soil mechanical properties will change greatly when subjected to the freezing–thawing (F–T) action, which can affect the design and construction of new projects and the stability and safety of the existing infrastructures1.

The existence of flooding alleviates the freeze-thaw’s carry-over effects

Soil melting starts from late March to early April, whereas freezing starts from mid-November52. The mean annual temperature in this area is 4.2 °C, with a 137-day frost-free period, and 76% of the annual precipitation is mainly concentrated from July to September53. The dominant marsh plants are Scirpus planiculmis, Schoenoplectus nipponicus, and Phragmites australis. According to the Harmonized World Soil Database Viewer (Version 1.2)54, the soil types include Phaeozems, Gleysols, Arenosols, and Chernozems. The organic matter content of soil ranges from 4 g kg−1 to 91 g kg−1;55 total nitrogen ranges from 0.27 g kg−1 to 0.87 g kg−1; the pH varies from 7.99 to 9.67;56 and the Momoge wetland is a mineral wetland. Water enters the mineral either by becoming an inherent part of the mineral composition or by occupying the spaces within its crystal lattice structure (Tuller and Or, 2003), which causes the mineral volume to expand significantly (Figure 7B). This phenomenon makes it difficult to control water movement in foundations and underground support environments. The soil microbial community attributes were correlated with soil nutrients and plant eco-physiological characteristics according to the Spearman correlation and partial Mantel test (Supplementary Fig. 10). In addition, plant sprouting and early growth were also correlated with soil nutrients to various degrees. The distance-based redundancy analysis (db-RDA) and variance partitioning analysis (VPA) (Fig. 4) results showed that the genetic potential of denitrification was the dominant factor controlling the changes in soil nitrogen and explaining 79% of the variation. Furthermore, the structural equation model (SEM) results showed that denitrification controlled the soil nitrogen and indirectly influenced plant sprouting and early growth (Fig. 5a).

UCS specimen preparation procedure

As a result, boundary markers often shift from their designated positions due to the upward movement of rocks resulting from the volumetric expansion of ice beneath road beds (Taivainen, 1963). Additional F/T studies as outlined in Table 3 at different fill volumes from 20 to 500 mL in various appropriately sized containers were also evaluated and no significant increase in percent aggregates was detected. For freeze-drying microscopy, protein sample was dispensed into a glass cell and placed on a temperature-controlled freeze-drying stage.